I. The Department of Biology offers graduate programs leading to the Master of Science or Doctor of Philosophy degree with a major in Biology and concentrations Microbiology or Molecular Cell Sciences and in Botany, Invertebrate Zoology, and Vertebrate Zoology (see Department of Biology).

II. MS Degree Program

A. Program Admission

1. The GRE General Test is required. Minimum GRE scores required for admission are 400 verbal and 450 quantitative.
2. Two letters of recommendation.
3. A minimum score of 550, or 210 on the computer-based, TOEFL (for students whose native language is not English).
4. An undergraduate degree with a minimum GPA of 2.5 on a 4.0 scale. Undergraduate coursework in organic chemistry, physics, and calculus is strongly recommended.

1. A minimum of 30 semester hours beyond the baccalaureate degree. A maximum of 15 hours of MMCS 7092 (Research) and MMCS 7996 (Thesis) combined may be applied to the 30-hour requirement.
2. MMCS 7004, 7200, and 7996. Seminar attendance is mandatory. A maximum of 4 hours of MMCS 7200 may be applied to degree requirements.
3. Maintenance of a GPA of 3.0. Continuation of a student who earns a grade of "2.0" or below in a course is at the discretion of the student's Advisory Committee.
4. Passing grade on written comprehensive exams in the areas of biochemistry, cell biology, molecular genetics, and microbiology. Student must pass 3 out of 4 subject areas. Exams will be given at a regularly scheduled time each semester. Student should begin taking exams no later than the third semester of the program.
5. Public presentation and defense of the student’s thesis as approved by the student’s Advisory Committee. The student must register for a minimum of 6 thesis hours; no more than this minimum will count toward the degree even though the student may have had to register for more hours to remain in continuous enrollment.

1. A minimum of 36 semester hours of graduate courses. The total number of semester hours required for graduation is determined by the student’s Advisory Committee. No more than 3 semester hours can be satisfied by BIOL or MMCS 7092.
2. MMCS 7004 and 7200. Seminar attendance is mandatory. A maximum of 4 hours of MMCS 7200 may be applied to degree requirements. Student must complete a laboratory experience consisting of 2 approved MMCS laboratory courses or an internship (minimum of one semester laboratory research experience at U of M or other institution) approved by the graduate coordinator.
3. Maintenance of a GPA of 3.0. Continuation of a student who earns a grade of "2.0" or below in a course is at the discretion of the student’s Advisory Committee.
4. Passing grade on written comprehensive exams in the areas of biochemistry, cell biology, molecular genetics, and microbiology. Student must pass 3 out of 4 subject areas. Exams will be given at a regularly scheduled time each semester. Student should begin taking exams no later than the third semester of the program.

A. Program Admission

1. The prospective doctoral student must have an undergraduate degree, preferably in the life or physical sciences, from a recognized institution. Undergraduate coursework in organic chemistry, physics, and calculus is strongly recommended.
2. The GRE General Test is required with the application to enter the Graduate School. Minimum GRE scores required for admission are 450 verbal and 550 quantitative.
3. A minimum score of 550 on the TOEFL, or 210 on the computer-based TOEFL (for students whose native language is not English).
4. Two letters of recommendation.

1. Course Requirements—MMCS 8004, 8200, and 9000. Attendance at seminar is mandatory. A maximum of 4 hours of MMCS 8200 may be applied to degree requirements. A minimum of 3 academic years (72 semester hours) beyond the baccalaureate degree is required. A minimum of 30 semester hours must be taken in residence. A maximum of 30 hours of MMCS 8092 (Research) and MMCS 9000 (Dissertation) combined may be applied to the 72-hour requirement. A maximum of 30 graduate hours from a master's degree, or other graduate course work completed before admission to the doctoral program, may be applied to the 72 hour requirement, subject to the approval of the advisory committee.
2. Qualifying Examination—The master's comprehensive exam will serve as the qualifying exam for the doctoral program. Criteria for passing are the same as for the master's degree. Students entering with an MS should begin taking this exam in the first semester in residence, while other students should begin taking this exam by the second semester in residence. Results of the qualifying exam will be used to help plan the student's academic program.
3. Grade Point Average—Maintenance of a GPA of 3.0 is required. Continuation of a student who earns a grade of C (2.0) or below in a course is at the discretion of the student’s Advisory Committee.
4. Foreign Language and Research—Students are required to demonstrate competence in foreign language or research tool areas, or both. This requirement will be determined by each student's Advisory Committee.
5. Comprehensive Examination and Candidacy—Student must pass a written and oral comprehensive exam no later than the end of the fifth semester in residence. The written portion of the exam will consist of a research proposal concerning the project the student intends to pursue for the dissertation. The oral portion of the exam, a defense of the proposal, should be scheduled after successful completion of the written portion. Admission to candidacy will be recommended to the Graduate School by the student’s committee upon satisfactory completion of any language requirement, course work, comprehensive examination, and acceptance of the dissertation project.
6. Dissertation and Research—A dissertation will be required of candidates for the doctoral degree. The dissertation must show a mastery of the techniques of scientific research, and it must be a distinct and new contribution to the body of scientific knowledge. The student's committee must approve the topic and the final dissertation. Completion of the PhD requires acceptance of at least one paper by a peer-reviewed journal, unless waived by the major professor.
7. Final Examination—The final examination will be conducted by the student's committee. The committee will consist, insofar as possible, of the same persons involved in the comprehensive examination. The final examination will be an oral defense of the dissertation and will be announced and open to the public. Upon successful completion of the examination and all degree requirements, the committee will recommend awarding the PhD degree.

6090-99. Special Topics in Cell and Molecular Biology. (1-3). Topics are varied and announced in online class listings. May be repeated with different topics for a maximum of 4 hours. PREREQUISITE: Consent of instructor.

6150. Developmental Biology. (3). (BIOL 6150, 6151). Introduction to study of developing biological systems at cellular and molecular level. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: BIOL 3072 and CHEM 3312.

6350. Microbial Biotechnology. (3). Principles underlying practical applications of microorganisms, including synthesis of commercial products, vaccines and antibodies, bioremediation and biomass utilization, plant biotechnology, and food production. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3550 and CHEM 3312.

6375. Molecular Biology of Parasites and Their Vectors. (3). Emphasis on molecular and immunological aspects of parasites of humans, companion animals, and livestock; biology, treatment, and prevention of parasitic diseases. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITE: MMCS 3130 or 3550.

6380. Histology: Tissue and Organ Biology (4). Histology, with emphasis on the relationship between structure and function in mammalian tissues and organs; human histology emphasized. Three lecture, three laboratory hours per week. PREREQUISITE: A course in vertebrate physiology is recommended.

6400. Plant Cell and Molecular Biology. (3). The cellular and molecular basis of plant development, including plant hormones, signal transduction, regulation by light, plant-microbe interactions, and plant transformation. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3130 and BIOL 3072.

6440. Pathogenic Bacteriology. (3). (BIOL 6440). Survey of pathogenic bacteria, human and veterinary diseases they cause, and methods of diagnosis; molecular basis of pathogenesis. Introduction to immunological principles and immunity. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3550 and CHEM 3312.

6445. Immunology. (3). (BIOL 6445, 6444). Antigens, immunoglobulin classes, cells and cytokines of immune response, complement system, hypersensitivities, blood groups, vaccines, and immunity. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3550 and CHEM 3311.

6450. Microbial Ecology. (3). (BIOL 6450). Roles of microorganisms in the environment; microbial processes, interactions with the environment and biota, population ecology, community ecology, and biodegradation. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3550, 4511 and 4512, or consent of instructor.

6460. Advanced General Microbiology Laboratory. (2). Application of modern laboratory techniques and instrumentation to experiments in microbial physiology, genetics, ecology, and biotechnology. Four laboratory hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3550 and 3600.

6465. Advanced Medical Microbiology Laboratory. (2). Application of modern laboratory techniques and instrumentation to experiments in pathogenic bacteriology, immunology, virology, and parasitology. Four laboratory hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 3550 and 3600.

6470. Molecular Genetics. (4). (BIOL 6470). Structure, function, and replication of DNA, recombination, colinearity of DNA with genetic map, mutagenesis, plasmids, genetic code, protein synthesis, suppression, regulation of gene expression, genetic engineering, and immunogenetics. For students without formal training in molecular genetics. Four lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITES: BIOL 3072 and MMCS 3130 or 3500.

6501. Virology. (3). Introductory study of viruses of human and veterinary significance, and methods of cultivation, isolation, and characterization; study of pathogenic mechanisms. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITE: MMCS 3550.

6503. Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry. (2). (BIOL 6503). (Same as CHEM 6501). Biochemical techniques, analysis and design strategies; emphasis on proteins/enzymes, including binding, catalysis, kinetics, electron and proton transport processes of intermediate metabolism; purification; characterization, and assay of enzymes using chromatography, spectorscopy, and electrophoresis. Six laboratory hours per week; $50 material fee. PREREQUISITES: CHEM 3302. PREREQUISITE OR COREQUISITE: MMCS 6511.

6504. Laboratory Techniques in Molecular Biology. (2). (BIOL 6504). Biochemical laboratory techniques; emphasis on nucleic acids and recombinant DNA techniques; vector design and practical incorporation into host systems; product expression, isolation and identification; focus on bioinformatics in research design strategoes. Six laboratory hours per week; $50 material fee. PREREQUISITE OR COREQUISITE: MMCS 6512 or CHEM 6512 or permission of instructor.

6511. Biochemistry I. (3). (BIOL 6511). (Same as CHEM 6511). Chemistry of amino acids and proteins related to their properties in biochemical systems; enzymology, including kinetics and conformation studies; coenzymes and their functions; importance of pH; bioenergetics; chemistry of carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleotides. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITE: CHEM 3312.

6512. Biochemistry II. (3). (BIOL 6512). (Same as CHEM 6512). Continuation of MMCS 6511; chemistry of lipids: metabolism membrance formation and function in cell signaling mechanisms and sensory transduction; chemistry of nucleotides, DNA, and RNA; mechanisms of information storage and transmission; advanced treatment of enzyme kinetics. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITE: MMCS 6511 or CHEM 6511.

6580-99. Special Topics in Biochemistry. (1-3). (Same as CHEM 6580-99).

†7003-8003. Teaching Skills for Graduate Assistants. (3). Strategies and skills for effective college teaching; includes use of innovative approaches and computer-based instructional technology. May be repeated up to 12 credit hours. May not be applied to degree requirements.

†7004-8004. College Biology Teaching. (1). Under faculty supervision, graduate students participate in teaching laboratory sections of existing undergraduate courses in the biological sciences (MMCS or BIOL). Student's performance evaluated by faculty member in charge and appropriate grade assigned. Two-four laboratory hours per week.

†7006-8006. Care and Humane Use of Laboratory Animals. (2). (Same as BIOL 7006-8006). Care and use of live vertebrate animals in research and teaching. Students must enroll in this course before working with live vertebrate animals; fulfills requirements of Federal Animal Welfare Act and NIH Guide. One lecture and two laboratory hours per week.

7010. Experimental Cell and Molecular Biology for Teachers. (4). Developing inquiry-based laboratory activities to teach basic concepts of cell and molecular biology in middle and high school settings; includes basic concepts, fundamental laboratory skills, and methods for designing inquiry-based laboratory exercises. NOTE: May not be applied to MMCS degree requirements. Two lecture, six laboratory hours per week.

7031-8031. Cellular Physiology. (4). (BIOL 7031-8031). Cell function, cellular thermodynamics, exchange of materials across cell membranes, physiological buffering systems, enzyme kinetics, cellular respiration, and cellular response to extracellular perturbation. Two lecture, four laboratory hours per week. PREREQUISITE: Permission of instructor.

7040-8040. Light Microscopy and Image Processing. (3). Light microscope optics, theory and practice of confocal microscopy, current techniques in fluorescence microscopy, digital image acquisition and processing. Lectures occasionally supplemented with demonstrations. Three lecture hours per week.

7051-8051. Vertebrate Cell Culture Techniques. (4). (BIOL 7051-8051). Theory, principles, and practical preparation in the use of vertebrate cell cultures and cell lines in biomedical research. Two lecture, four laboratory hours per week.PREREQUISITE: Permission of instructor.

†7092-8092. Research. (1-6). Consultation, reading, and laboratory work investigating selected topics in microbiology and molecular cell sciences. Formal paper with review of literature and results of investigation required. May be repeated for maximum of 9 semester hours credit.

7131-8131. Cell and Molecular Biology. (4). Introduction to principles of molecular biology as they apply to eukaryotic cells including transcription, translation, regulation of protein function, DNA replication, membrane biogenesis, secretion, hormone action, signal transduction, and ligand receptor interaction. Four lecture hours per week.

†7200-8200. Seminar. (1). Student presentations of topics in microbiology, biochemistry or cell and molecular biology. (Open to BIOL and MMCS students only.)

7290-8290. Molecular Computing. (3). (Same as COMP 7290-8290). Basics of cell biology and genetics (DNA structure and enzymes, replication, and translation); feasible DNA-based solution of hard computational problems; issues in the design of molecular computers; foundations of nanotechnology. PREREQUISITE: COMP 6030 or permission of instructor.

7331-8331. Photosynthesis. (2). (BIOL 7331-8331). Lectures and readings on modern theory of photosynthesis. Includes such topics as chloroplast structure and function; chemistry and photo-chemistry of chlorophyll; influence of external factors on rate of photosynthesis, absorption, fluorescence, and luminescence; energy storage; efficiency; carbon fixation; photosynthesis in cell extracts; phosphorylation. Two lecture hours per week.

7400-8400. Comparative Immunology. (3). Phylogenesis and development of the defensive immune systems of invertebrates and the vertebrate classes. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITE: MMCS 6445.

7464-8464. Advanced Immunology. (4). Selected topics and laboratories in molecular and cellular immunology, immunobiology, tumor immunology, and medical aspects of immunology. Three lecture, two laboratory hours per week. PREREQUISITES: MMCS 6445 and 6511 or their equivalent.

7470-8470. Advanced Bacterial Genetics. (3). Advanced studies in the molecular basis of bacterial genetics; including mutation and bacterial repair systems, complementation analysis, recombination, gene transfer mechanisms, gene conversion and marker effects, insertional elements, phase variation, and bacteriophage genetics. Three lecture hours per week. PREREQUISITE: MMCS 6470 or equivalent.

7500-09–8500-09. Special Topics in Biochemistry. (1-3). (Same as CHEM 7500-09–8500-09). Lectures and conferences covering selected areas of current interest, including enzymology, protein and nucleic acid chemistry, physical chemistry of biochemical macromolecules, lipid, carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, biochemical energetics, and metabolic regulation. May be repeated for a maximum of 12 hours. PREREQUISITE: Permission of instructor.

7530-8530. Bacterial Physiology. (3). (BIOL 7530-8530). Bacterial physiology including growth, nutrition, biosynthesis, biodegradation, and adaptation. Three lecture hours per week.

7550-8550. Food and Industrial Toxicology. (3). Principles and methodology of genotoxicity; assessment of toxic substances in animal and plant foodstuffs, and in industrial wastes; fungal and bacterial contaminants, food additives, and food processing; biotransformation and health impacts are emphasized. Three lecture hours per week.

7700-20–8700-20. Special Topics in Microbiology and Molecular Cell Sciences. (1-4). Current topics of special interest. Topics are announced in the online class listings. PREREQUISITE: Permission of instructor.

†7996. Thesis. (1-6).

†8100. Dissertation Proposal. (3). Preparation of a dissertation project proposal in the NIH grant format and an oral defense of the proposal. PREREQUISITE: MMCS doctoral student.

†9000. Doctoral Research and Dissertation. (1-10). The dissertation must be an independent research project applying a mastery of the techniques of scientific research. It must be a distinct and new contribution to the body of scientific knowledge. May be repeated for a maximum of 30 credit hours.

† Grades of S, U, or IP will be given.